Francis William Aston was born in London in 1836, the son of a well-known surgeon. He attended Westminster School, where he studied natural science. In 1857, at the age of 17, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, to study chemistry under Sir John Leslie. He interrupted his studies to join the Peninsular Campaign in 1859 and took part in the battles of Alma and Inkerman
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After further military service in 1862–3, he returned to Trinity College to take his degree in 1863. He then spent two years working for Sir J.J. Thomson at Cambridge before joining the staff of Sir William Crookes at Manchester University.
By 1868 he had returned to Cambridge to become demonstrator in physics under Professor J.J. Thomson and became a Fellow of Trinity College in 1869. In 1871 he became professor of chemistry there until 1878 when he moved to Birkbeck College, University of London to become professor of chemistry.
He was appointed director of the National Physical Laboratory there in 1880 and was knighted in 1893 for his work on gasometry, the measurement of gas volumes (he developed the technique still used today). He also served as president of the Chemical Society (1892–3).